A Brief History of Computer Animation

3D Computer Animation is a modern art form which has transformed dramatically during my life; maturing from an experimental form to an esteemed art. In this blog, I will give you a brief look at the history of 3D computer animation. Since the entire history of computer graphics is too vast to cover in a small blog, I will only look at the developments that are most essential to the topic. Since some of these topics were of a very technical nature, and I am writing to a general audience, I will cover them only briefly, sparing the technobabble.

Would you believe that the first computer generated 3D models were produced by Boeing? More specifically, they were created by a Boeing researcher, William Fetter. When redesigning an airplane cockpit to be more ergonomic in 1964, Fetter created the first 3D model ever of a human being, known later as “Boeing Man.” [1] Compared to today’s 3D models, his models were incredibly simple; they were just curves, representing the contour of a man. This model was not intended for film or animation, but it inspired others to realize that computers could be used for more than just mathematics. “Computer graphics” was now officially born. 

"Boeing Man" by William Fetter[2]

Around the same time that the “Boeing Man” was created, a computer program called Sketchpad was developed by Ivan Sutherland in 1963.[3] This program was the first computer-aided drawing (CAD) program and also one of the first programs to introduce the concept of a graphical user interface (GUI). Before Sketchpad, images were drawn on a computer by typing lists of drawing commands, which looked something like, “drawCircle(x = 50px, y = 50px, radius = 20px)”. Now, with Sketchpad, drawings could be created visually using a light pen in a similar fashion as a modern mouse. Images were stored to memory and could be scaled, rotated, moved, and most importantly, instanced. An instance of an image is like a copy, but if the original is further modified, all the instances are also modified. Instances are tantamount in the fields of object oriented programming and computer graphics. Jump ahead to 2012, software like Google’s SketchUp enables the construction of 3D objects in a strikingly similar manner.

Right here at the University of Utah, some of the most important algorithms in 3D computer animation were developed. After the creation of Sketchpad, Sutherland taught at the University of Utah from 1968 to 1974 and co-founded Evans and Sutherland in Salt Lake City in 1968, a company specializing in computer graphics. [4] Sutherland and his colleagues and students at the University also developed some of the most important algorithms used in 3D Computer Graphics: Henri Gouraud invented the Gouraud shading technique, which blends edges to make a faceted polygonal object appear round; Franklin C. Crow, invented practical anti-aliasing techniques, making jagged edges look smooth; and Edwin Catmull, the president of Walt Disney Animation Studios and Pixar Animation Studios, led the front-lines, using computers to create an entire feature film.[5]

The first 3D computer models were mere wireframes, think connect the dots, but in three dimensions.  The surface in between these dots (vertices) is known as a polygon. The representation of polygons as a solid, shaded surface is known as rendering. Sutherland developed an algorithm called hidden surface removal, which displays only the polygons that can be seen by the virtual camera, hiding the rest.[6] Further algorithms, like Phong and Blinn shading, for rendering surfaces were tested on the now famous “Utah Teapot”. Martin Newell created this classic model of an ordinary teapot in 1975.[7] The teapot was the perfect model for testing because it had both rounded surfaces and sharp corners. Ever since the teapot was created, much research has been put in to creating photo-realistic images on a computer.

Wireframe model of the Utah Teapot © School of Computing at the University of Utah

Edwin Catmull was the first known person who wanted to develop computer technology for use in feature films. “…my goal was not as lofty as emulating all of reality; it was to make an animated film.” - Edwin Catmull.[8] The first 3D rendered animation, was of his Catmull’s own hand. He was also the first to create an animated face.

To create the illusion of motion in film, at least ten frames need to be shown every second. In traditional animation, each frame is painstakingly drawn by the animator. For just a single minute of animation, at least six-hundred frames would need to be drawn! 3D computer animation lifts this burden by using a technique called tweening. To tweening is done with the use of key frames, representing a key position or pose in an animation at specific point in time. The difference between two key frames is interpolated by a computer, creating all the frames in between! Imagine a ball bouncing, the first key frame would be set when the ball is above the ground, the second would be when the ball hit the ground, the third would be when the ball was back in there air. In 3D computer animation, any element that can be modified can be key framed: allowing very complex motion to be recreated. The concept of tweening key frames was first developed in the 1974 by Edwin Catmull of course.[9] Keyframing is the most essential part of creating animation on a computer, saving animators thousands of man hours.

The 1970’s had led to a lot of technical development of 3D computer animation but it was not until the early 1980’s when 3D computer animation really started to take flight in feature films. Intrigued by the possibilities computer animation could offer, George Lucas created a 3D animation department at Lucasfilm during the production of “The Empire Strikes Back” known as The Graphics Group, which would later become Pixar.[10] [11] The first computer generated (CG) special effect done by The Graphics Group was for “Return Of The Jedi” in which a wireframe view of the trenches of the Deathstar are shown. [12]

The early 1980’s had CG imagery popping up everywhere in feature films, but in 1982 Disney’s Tron was the first feature film to completely rely on the use of CGI (Computer Generated Imagery).[13] Tron however did not have computer animated characters, which would be the next big goal in computer animation. Computer Animation broke ground in 1984 with the release of The Adventures of André and Wally B. by The Graphics Group.[14] This film is known as the first CG short and was also the first film to showcase Character Animation. Character Animation was further revolutionized in 1985 when the feature film Young Sherlock Holmes brought a believable stained glass knight to life on the big screen.  In 1986, Character Animation finally succeeded in capturing the hearts of an audience, showing emotion for a desk lamp, in the Oscar winning short by John Lasseter, Luxo Jr. Luxo went on to be the official mascot of Pixar.  

Lightcycles from Tron © Walt Disney Studios

Pixar's Luxo Jr © Pixar Animation Studios

Up until the mid-1980’s, CGI was done on in-house software. A company known at the time as Wavefront started producing 3D software which they marketed to major studios. Their software would later evolve in to Maya, the most popular software used today.[17] Wavefront revolutionized the market, spreading the use of 3D Animation from a select few to many different studios who could now hop on the 3D bandwagon. Many other popular 3D packages were soon released near the 1990’s like Autodesk’s 3D Studio, and NewTek’s 3D Toaster.[18]

Films like Terminator 2: Judgment Day and Jurassic Park in the early 1990’s proved to audiences and producers that CGI could be used on the big screen to replace costly animatronics and set a new standard for photorealism. I can remember seeing Jurassic Park as a child and believing that the directors used real dinosaurs. Disney also started using CGI to great effect in their movie Beauty and the Beast. Even though the film had a 2D visual style, 3D Computer graphics allowed Disney’s animators to produce camera movements that simply were not possible with traditional 2D animation.[19] Around this time Disney decided to partner with Pixar to produce a feature length animated film. When the first full-length feature, Toy Story came to theaters in 1995, it completely shocked audiences, not with photo realistic graphics, but because they had given real life and personalities to computer animated characters (Of which the general public had not yet been exposed to). [20] I actually was not too shocked at the time. I remember enjoying the film, but since I was only eight at the time, I did not understand the films importance.

Buzz and Woody from Pixar's Toy Story © Pixar Animation Studios

By the end of the 1990’s, CGI was showing up everywhere, movies, TV Shows, advertisements, and in my home. Many special effects using miniatures were soon being replaced with CGI. It was now undeniable that CGI was here for a long term relationship. CGI was also becoming extremely accessible to students and hobbyists, who can use 3D software on their personal computers to create their own independent 3D Computer Animated films. I first got my hands on some 3D Animation Software in 1997 when my father bought me a copy of Bryce 3d, a program that first inspired me to explore computer animation.


By the beginning of the 2000’s, 3D Computer Animation was now fully established, all the major breakthroughs had been achieved.  However, in my world, 3D animation had only just begun! Throughout my journey in the last ten years I have used countless 3D software packages. Much of what I do now in 2012 is very similar to what I did in 2000. Many things have evolved however: 3D software has become more intuitive and easier to use; processor speeds are now incredibly fast, allowing me to view complex, raytraced scenes in realtime; I can now easily handle billions of polygons; and there are better training materials available. 3D software is now more accessible than ever! Free 3D software packages like Blender 3D, Sculptris and Google Sketchup have made 3D animation available to anyone with a computer. Hopefully, 3D animation will soon become a standard addition in elementary curriculum. In film, the focus has shifted from mind-blowing graphics to perfecting a story without the limits of reality. 

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[1] Experiments in Art and Technology (E.A.T.), "History," E.A.T. 1966 2002, accessed February 20, 2012, last modified 2002, http://courses.washington.edu/eatreun/html/history/h_nw.html .
[2] Wan Link Sniper, "William Fetter and the Boeing Man," Wan Link Sniper, accessed February 20, 2012, last modified October 2, 2009, http://wanlinksniper.blogspot.com/2009/10/william-fetter-and-boeing-man.html .
[3] Ivan Sutherland, s.v. "Ivan Sutherland," by Wikipedia, accessed February 21, 2012, last modified November 26, 2011, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ivan_Sutherland .
[4] University Of Utah School of Computing, "U of U School Of Computing History," U of U School Of Computing , accessed February 20, 2012, http://www.cs.utah.edu/school/history/#sketchpad-ref.
[5] "Ivan Sutherland," by Wikipedia.
[6] Dmitry Shklyar, "3D Rendering History," CGSociety, accessed February 20, 2012, last modified 2004, http://www.cgsociety.org/index.php/CGSFeatures/CGSFeatureSpecial/3d_rendering_history_part_1._humble_beginnings .
[7] Computer History Museum, "The Utah Teapot," Computer History Museum, accessed February 20, 2012, last modified 2010, http://www.computerhistory.org/revolution/computer-graphics-music-and-art/15/206 .
[8] Ed Catmull, "A Conversation with Ed Catmull," interview by Pat Hanrahan, ACM Queue, November 2010, page #s, http://queue.acm.org/detail.cfm?id=1883592 .
[9]  IEEE Computer Society, "Edwin E. Catmull, 2008 Computer Entrepreneur Award Recipient," IEEE Computer Society, accessed February 20, 2012, last modified 2008, http://www.computer.org/portal/web/awards/catmull.
[10] Michael Morrison, "Computer graphics history, 1970," HISTORY OF COMPUTER GRAPHICS, accessed February 21, 2012, http://hem.passagen.se/des/hocg/hocg_1960.htm .
[11] Pixar, s.v. "Pixar," by Wikipedia, accessed February 22, 2012, last modified February 22, 2012, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pixar.
[12] "Pixar," by Wikipedia
[13] Tron, s.v. "Tron," by Wikipedia, accessed February 21, 2012, last modified February 21, 2012, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tron.
[14] The Adventures of André and Wally B., s.v. "The Adventures of André and Wally B." by Wikipedia, accessed February 21, 2012, last modified February 14, 2012, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Adventures_of_Andr%C3%A9_and_Wally_B.
[15] Michael Morrison, "Computer graphics history, 1980," http://hem.passagen.se/des/hocg/hocg_1980.htm
[16] Luxo Jr, s.v. "Luxo Jr," by Wikipedia, accessed February 21, 2012, last modified February 11, 2012, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luxo_Jr.
[17] Alias Systems Corporation, s.v. "Alias Systems Corporation," by Wikipedia, accessed February 21, 2012, last modified October 27, 2011, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alias_Systems_Corporation
[18] Michael Morrison, "Computer graphics history, 1980,"
[19] Michael Morrison, "Computer graphics history, 1990," http://hem.passagen.se/des/hocg/hocg_1990.htm
[20] Darkclaw1256, "A History of Toy Story," Retro Junk, accessed February 21, 2012, last modified 2010, http://www.retrojunk.com/details_articles/6884/.
[21] Michael Morrison, "Computer graphics history, 1990,"

3D Animation and Me

My right wrist is syncopated to the rhythm of music streaming through my ears, feeding my subconscious. With each twist, small layers of volume build and come together, realizing an object that was until recently confined to the isolated walls of my skull. Within minutes I’ve created from nothing, a realized prototype. I stop; adjust the focus of my eyes, and analyze this creation. Perhaps I should make the face longer, maybe the brows more defined, more muscle, or perhaps more bone. The variations are infinite. Back at it, I try some of these ideas, cntrl+z (The control key plus the z key on a keyboard; a common hotkey for undoing an operation). I experiment more, toying with shape and form, cntrl+z again. I keep trying new ideas, exploring until I’ve achieved a form that I like, sometimes love. Ideally, I aim for a form that is more interesting than originally envisioned.


What am I doing exactly you may wonder? I am sculpting, but not in a traditional sense, I am sculpting digitally, and it is just as fast as sketching with a pencil! Using an application called ZBrush (A computer program for both Windows and Macintosh that is geared towards digital sculpting and painting), I can create anything I can imagine from nothing. The creation process in ZBrush is simple, most 2d (two-dimensional) artists could make the jump to 3d (three-dimensional) within a day using ZBrush. It was not always like this. Before, software like ZBrush, objects had to be created insipidly, polygon by polygon. This is a much more time consuming and less creative process.


I thoroughly enjoy creating things virtually. It’s not just a simple hobby, but something I’m very serious about and want to do as a career. Outsiders who have never been exposed to the clockwork of computer graphics sometimes give the field less credit than more traditional mediums. I consider 3d graphics, video games, and graphic design to be true art form. Being something that I’m obsessed with, I find this to be a wonderful subject to blog about!


My fascination with 3d animation sparked in 1997 when my father gave me a program called Bryce 3D.  This program gave me the ability to create virtual worlds complete with mountains, skies, lakes, and some primitive objects. I was entertained for weeks, but eventually I developed an itching to create my own characters, vehicles, and buildings. Bryce 3D did not have polygonal modeling tools, I was limited to cubes, spheres, torus’s, and pyramids. At the time I was unable to find any affordable programs that I could convince my parents to buy me.  An everyman’s 3d software package simply did not exist then, only pricey programs used exclusively by Hollywood artists. My fascination with 3d soon simmered, but never died.

Currently I am modeling a robotic character for a shortfilm. I first started this character using a polygonal process in Autodesk Maya 2012 (A very popular 3d software program, in fact it is installed on just about every computer at the University of Utah if you’re curious. In case you were wondering, there’s no relation to the Mayan calendar.), and I am finding modeling in Maya to be simply tedious. Ergo, I switch to my favorite polygonal modeling program, Modo by Luxology, and find the process to flow much smoother. Maya is an incredibly powerful program, it can do it all, but this is also Maya’s downfall. Modo has been optimized for modeling, which works out in my favor for this task. As a 3d artist, jumping between different software programs is similar to switching from a pen to a pencil. Both work in a similar fashion, but I see each as simply a tool and I will use whichever one works best for my situation.

At the age of twelve, a diehard computer nerd, I was experimenting with different Linux distributions, aka “distros”, compiling code and adjusting the components of the OS (operating system) to suite my tastes. During this time I discovered a program called Blender 3d. This was a Linux program for 3d Modeling and Animation; the best part, completely free, but not yet open source. Where Bryce 3d had sparked a mere fascination, Blender was a gateway, a black hole with no escape. Instead of exhausting my time manually compiling source code when I could simply download a pre-compiled binary(After a program has been transcoded from Human-readable code to machine code, it is referred to as an executable binary.), I spent this time learning everything I possibly could about this program and 3d Animation in general. Like any skill, I was just terrible at first, but with my over-obsessive desire to realize my ideas in three dimensions, I prevailed.

The ZBrush Process

The process of taking an idea and transforming it in to a 3d object in ZBrush is not monotonous, but wonderfully creative. It is not a requirement to have concept images drawn when starting a sculpture in ZBrush, as it is in most 3d software packages. An artist can flesh out the basics of an idea, starting with nothing, ending with a 3d model, complete with textures that can be imported to other programs for animation. Although one can create anything they desire in ZBrush, the program works best for character and creature creation.

 To start, the artist can create a basic rough form of what they want by manipulating what are called “ZSpheres”. These spheres can be interconnected with further spheres. It is difficult to describe exactly how these function without images, but remember those “Learn to draw” books you might have read as a child. In these books, the drawings usually started as a bunch of circles. The process here in ZBrush is similar, and is incredibly quick to produce a basic shape to start sculpting on.

ZSpheres in Zbrush

With the ZSphere shape, a simple skin of polygons can be generated that takes this shape. The artist will sculpt on these polygons. Each polygon is a plane with three or four edges. In order to provide more polygons to manipulate, the polygons can be subdivided. This exponentially increases the polygon density; each single polygon is now four. The beauty of ZBrush is that we only have to worry much about polygon density. Topology (The study of how polygons are interconnected and flow with the structure they represent) does not need to be considered now. At this stage, the artist is free to manipulate their object as if it were clay.

Good Topology

Good Vs Bad

To sculpt the object, many different brushes are available. These brushes are able to manipulate the object in all sorts of useful ways. There is a move brush which simply moves whatever is underneath, think of pinching and pulling clay. There is a clay brush, which layers on strips of polygons, like a flattened strip of clay being laid down. There is a smooth brush, activated by simply holding the shift key. There are so many ways to manipulate to object, that it is difficult to not get exactly what you want.

Once the artist has finished sculpting their object, it can be painted, and then exported out to another program for animation. The only problem with this process is that for animating an organic character, the sculpture will need to be retopologized. Retopology is the process of drawing a new polygon structure on top of the detailed sculpted object. This is necessary to both reduce the number of polygons in the model and to create a structure which will deform well during animation. This process may be painstaking, but it is much less than modeling a character from scratch, polygon by polygon. 

Polygon by Polygon

This workflow involves creating an object polygon by polygon. The use of reference images during this process is incredibly helpful, sometimes necessary. This can be extremely slow and tedious when trying to create organic creatures and characters. This is because each polygon, edge, or vertex (The point where an edge intersects) is manipulated individually. Each new polygon can be created from extrude operations, or by slicing edges in to existing polygons. There are actually two different techniques to this process, box modeling and polygon by polygon. Box modeling involves starting with a box and cutting more edges to refine the form. Polygon by polygon involves manually adding each polygon. Both techniques are often combined.

Careful consideration needs to be taken when polygonal modeling to create a good topology. This means that the polygons need to flow with the shape they are trying to represent. For the shape of a box, the edge of a polygon should be placed at the edge, not cutting across it. Or for a face, edges should flow around the eyes in a circular fashion. This may seem trivial, but can pose many problems and interrupt the creative process.

Polygonal modeling is not the best choice for modeling organic characters. It is a great choice however for creating simple objects, and complex buildings. This is because a lot of man-man objects are built using squares, which are easy to recreate using polygons! 

Why do I have a desire for 3d Animation?

I have always had an insatiable desire to create. The main advantage of creating things virtually is the lack of material cost. Armed with a working computer, no other physical materials are necessary for me to create. Once I have created an object virtually, I can take it a step further and bring it to life through animation. Real life sculptures can only be observed in a static pose. I prefer to see art in motion. With computer animation, I can create an entire world with endless buildings to explore given the time. To rival this in real-life I would need either god-like powers or a bottomless pool of cash.

Why would I want to create, when I could simply relax and enjoy the creations of others? I do enjoy consuming the creations of other’s, yet there is a part of me that will never feel complete unless I’m being productive. The desire to explore and imagine is fundamental to what has made us human and technologically developed. I create because it feels good; to do otherwise would drive me to despair. 

Pricey Programs

Most 3d Animation software packages have a tradition of being outrageously expensive. Some of the priciest programs are: Maya, starting at $3,495.00; Softimage, a bit cheaper, only $2,995.00; Houdini takes the cake, starting at $2,595, annually, and that’s just for the base package! Student licenses however are very affordable; Autodesk (The developers of Maya, Softimage, and 3ds Max) offers a 13 month license for free!

What about the hobbyist that is not a student? Luckily, there are now some notable, free programs available: Blender 3d is the best out there, being both free and open source, providing tools that are in some cases better than the professional ones; Pixologic (The developers of Zbrush) offer a free sculpting program, Sculptris; Google provides a popular drafting tool for architecture called Sketchup. Although price might first scare the casual hobbyist, it is no longer a wall. 3d Animation is becoming widely available to anyone interested in the subject.

Short Film

Currently I am working on a short computer animated film for my Computer Animation II class taught by Lien Fan Shen. The film will be roughly five minutes in length. It takes place on a spaceship that is a space trucking service, transporting cargo from one end of the galaxy to the other. There are two characters, an alien named Martin and the ship’s built in computer A.I. system. I’ve created Martin, but still have to create the ship and the computer. I won’t detail the entire plot here, but it involves the computer A.I. pulling a prank on Martin. I’ll be finished with the film in April.